“Mongolia’s Environmental Crises: An Introduction”

By Morris Rossabi

Spring 2021

• Key terms: Mongolia, China and Inner Asia, economics, environmental studies, international relations, geography, global issues, climate change
• Best for: high school, post-secondary
• Article type: research

This concise essay offers Mongolia as a case study for examining the impacts of environmental change. Rossabi, a specialist on Inner Asia, offers an overview of broad issues. He also narrows discussion to focus on specific developments that have precipitated environmental challenges peculiar to Mongolia’s particular climate, geography, agriculture and land use, economic and political development, and its susceptibility to natural disasters.

“Under the Dome”

By Andrew M. McGreevy

Spring 2021

• Key terms: China, environmental studies, film, international relations, geography, global issues; air pollution
• Best for: middle school, high school, post-secondary
• Article type: pedagogy, curriculum, instruction

Under the Dome is a 2015 documentary produced in China. It is available through the Global Environmental Justice Documentaries Project, which is based in the USA and Canada. The video considers China’s environmental challenges generally and the issues of air quality specifically, through the lens of a Chinese news reporter’s personal experiences and research as she faced air pollution-related health issues of her infant daughter. The article provides context and a synopsis for the video, points instructors to an online curriculum unit, and offers an extended discussion of additional teaching and student-driven research strategies. The film endures as a valuable instructional resource for classroom study of China’s environmental challenges generally and air pollution specifically. In turn, this article is a useful guide to effective uses of the film in the classroom.

“China’s Water Challenges: National and Global Implications”

By David A. Pietz

Fall 2017

• Key terms: China, Inner Asia, environmental issues, environmental challenges, water, geography, international relations, political science, global issues
• Best for: high school, post-secondary
• Article type: research

Asserting that China offers a microcosm of the world’s water problems, this comprehensive article provides a foundation for understanding the interconnectedness of China’s and the world’s critical water issues. It focuses specifically on the biophysical setting of water on the North China Plain, one of the most water-challenged regions of China and the world. It further focuses on several case studies in this region to illustrate the range of water-related issues impacting China and the critical importance these realities may have in shaping China’s internal and external dynamics, including issues of food security, economic and social stability, national growth, and China’s relations with Southeast Asian and Sub-Saharan African nations.

“China: Harnessing the Waters”

By Judith Shapiro

Fall 2017

• Key terms: China, Inner Asia, environmental issues, geography, international relations, political science, water issues, Three Gorges Dam
• Best for: high school, post-secondary
• Article type: research

Shapiro focuses on China’s two main rivers, the Yellow and the Yangzi (Yangtze) Rivers, both flowing from the Himalayas. These rivers have defined China’s development through history. Now, the challenges of controlling these rivers, prone to both drought and flood, continue to shape China’s national identity. Noting that “fear and control are the great themes of life around these two rivers,” Shapiro traces their stories from the harnessing of the waters by the mythological first emperor through the monumental irrigation projects like the Grand Canal, to their roles in the legitimacy narratives of the KMT and Mao governments. In discussing the contemporary challenges posed by these two rivers, Shapiro puts the Three Gorges Dam into context as the best known but only one of scores of river projects. She discusses the goal of “harnessing the rivers” through dams and canals as both central to the public policy agenda and a controversial trigger point for environmental groups and an increasingly concerned Chinese middle class.

“China’s Environmental Challenges”

By Andrew M. McGreevy

Winter 2010

• Key terms: China, Inner Asia, economics, environmental studies, political science, world history, geography, global issues.
• Best for: high school, post-secondary
• Article type: research, curriculum

Published in 2010, this article is valuable as a time capsule of the real and perceived challenges posed by China’s rapid, environment altering economic growth one decade into the 21^st century. It offers a useful launch pad and point of comparison for contemporary courses considering environmental challenges, and China’s responses, in the 2020s. Andrew McGreevy notes that, in 2010, China had been labeled “one of the world’s worst environments” by China specialist Elizabeth Economy. Following a brief discussion of environmental issues in historical context, McGreevy outlines the dimensions of pressing crises: land use, deforestation, desertification, soil erosion, arable land, soil pollution, water, air quality, and health. Within each topical discussion, McGreevy identifies key issues and policies as well as essential readings. The article concludes with a nod to China’s efforts to become more “green,” noting that, as of 2010, “China is simultaneously condemned as a menace while being praised for its green movement. China’s economy has always taken precedence over the environment, but the land, water, air, and health issues add up to enormous costs that could cause environmental concerns to increasingly become critical government priorities, especially in an era when environmental issues clearly have global impact.”

“Rumble in the Eco-Jungle: China’s Green Non-Governmental Organizations”

By Kartrin Fiedler

Winter 2010

• Key terms: China, Inner Asia, environmental studies, environmental challenges, geography, political science
• Best for: high school, post-secondary
• Article type: research

Written in 2010, this article provides valuable background on the growth of environmental Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) in the early 21^st century. The article’s purpose is two-fold: 1) to focus attention on efforts to combat China’s deteriorating environmental situation that tend to be missed in Western reporting and 2) by examining the work of China’s environment-focused NGOs, to consider the conditions under which civil society organizations in China were working within the restrictive political environment of the time. The article provides the legal context of NGOs in China and outlines the evolution of NGOs generally and Chinese “green” NGOs, considering whether the latter hold a particular space of acceptance for the Chinese government. Finally, the article raises the question of whether China’s emerging non-governmental sector in the first decade of the 21^st century was paving the way for a genuine civil society or “third sphere”—the political space in which autonomous citizens voice their interests, usually considered a requisite for functioning democracies. By providing a detailed discussion of the state of green NGOs in 2010, the article offers a useful point of reference for looking at how environmental NGOs and Chinese civil society have evolved to the present time.

“China’s Chang Jiang: Dealing with the Deluge”

By David Shankman

Fall 2008

• Key terms: China, Inner Asia, environmental issues, water issues, geography, world history, global issues
• Best for: high school, post-secondary
• Article type: research

This article provides a regional overview of the Chang Jiang (Yangtze River) basin. Following an overview of the geography and climate along the Yangtze’s course, the author focuses on flood history in the modern era with discussion of the dependence on, and failures of, levee technology to control flooding. The author concludes with a discussion of the Chinese government’s transition in the early 2000s from levee construction toward flood management technologies. He predicts a continuing challenge of catastrophic flooding along the Yangtze and the need to prioritize flood control for the region.

“Waste Politics in Asia and Global Repercussions”

By Adam Liebman

Spring 2021

• Key terms: environmental issues, environmental challenges, international relations, economics, political science, global issues
• Best for: high school, post-secondary
• Article type: research, instruction

The author provides a framework for classroom investigation and analysis of growing controversies over waste importation into Asian countries, with attention to the export of Western-produced plastic waste to numerous Asian countries. He argues that Asian nations have been instrumental in challenging the dominant narrative surrounding waste pollution—that consumers and to a lesser extent on governments are responsible. These recent challenges from Asian countries shift the focus to the critical responsibilities of corporations that produce disposable products in the first place. The article discusses the documentary Plastic China as one of several resources for addressing this issue in the classroom and provides discussion guides for classroom use.

“The Politics of Climate Vulnerability in Asia”

By Pamela McElwee

Spring 2021

• Key terms: Vietnam, Southeast Asia, anthropology, economics, environmental studies, case studies, international relations, environmental challenges, environmental studies, political science
• Best for: post-secondary
• Article type: research

What is climate vulnerability? Which Asian countries and regions are most vulnerable? What are the issues in addressing it? The author outlines the problems and complexities of tackling a topic for which different definitions and concepts are used. Without a consensus definition, the author notes that any vulnerability assessment is subjective and contextual, a product of the indicators applied, available data, and assessment tools used.  Given that such comparisons of vulnerability are subjective, they also can be highly political. For example, to what degree do countries present climate vulnerability as something that has been imposed on them by outside forces beyond their control, without paying attention to the ways in which internal decisions have increased vulnerability to these external exposures? As a case study in the politics of climate vulnerability, the author focuses on Việt Nam. That nation is often cited as a vulnerable country due to large populations living in coastal and low-lying areas, compounded by the intensity of its typhoon storm season. At the same time, Việt Nam has a population that is vulnerable to climate change because of a reluctance to consider current developments and trajectories in industrial policies, economic growth, and resultant degradation of ecosystems in the locations that are most vulnerable to uncontrollable climate impacts. The article points to export-led industrial policy and intensive input-heavy agriculture as two of many policies that have increased risk and reduced overall resilience.

“‘Louder than Words’: A Profile of the Destruction of the Aral Sea and Its Consequences”

By Reuel R. Hanks

Spring 2021

• Key terms: Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Central Asia, economics, environmental issues, water issues, geography, political science, international relations, global issues, case studies
• Best for: high school, post-secondary
• Article type: research

Geographer Reuel Hanks presents a detailed case study of the destruction of the Aral Sea in the late-20^th century, labeling it as “the greatest human-induced ecological catastrophe in history” and a “testament to the folly of myopic ‘economic planning’ and the dangers of totalitarianism.” The affected region extends beyond the Aral Sea basin for hundreds of miles to the east, covering portions of Central Asia and Xinjiang. Perhaps the most shocking aspect of the Aral’s collapse was its rapidity. Between 1960 and 1990, approximately 70 percent of the area and half the volume of the sea were lost. Hanks discusses the factors leading to this destruction and its implications through an examination the interplay of history, geography, and economics in Central Asia, beginning in the 19^th century.

“Cauvery Calling: A Possible Solution for a Dying River and Desperate Farmers”

By Helen Kaibara

Spring 2021

• Key terms: India, South Asia, international relations, political science, geography, global issues, case studies
• Best for: high school, post-secondary
• Article type: research, instruction

This article details the complex interplay of environmental, economic, and social factors and agencies in an ongoing environmental initiative in India that is both widely praised and condemned. A “green revolution” initiative to address a food insecurity crisis in India in 1966 led to the adoption of HYV seeds in Indian agriculture. While this measure solved the initial crisis of food shortages, the processes required to successfully cultivate the HYV seeds precipitated unexpected consequences—among them, water diversion, underground water depletion, deforestation, and erosion. As a result, water in the Cauvery River Basin began to dry up. The crisis, in turn, led to social unrest and economic disruption for farmers. A private foundation, the Isha Foundation, stepped in to address this issue with a nationwide campaign entitled “Rally for Rivers.” But the foundation itself has been controversial and drew national attention when it became a focus of an American foundation’s backing.  The article provides clear and detailed background on this environmental case study and its controversies. It provides suggestions for student research and analysis of this case study, which may be best suited for the post-secondary level.

“Turtles All the Way Down: An Update on the Asian Turtle Crisis with New Directions”

By Bradley R. Reynolds, Pelf-Nyok Chen, Penni Jo Wilson, Rajeev Chauhan, Tabitha M. Wilson, Team Salamader, Thomas P. Wilson

Spring 2021

• Key terms: India, Malaysia, South Asia, Southeast Asia, environmental studies, global issues, geography, cultural studies, contemporary issues; biology, case studies
• Best for: high school, post-secondary
• Article type: research, curriculum, instruction

Building on the 2011 article, “Asia’s Turtle Crisis and Conservation: Environmental Education and Cultural Geography,” a research team introduces the paradox of Asian turtles, revered as symbols of longevity and power, and yet exploited to the point of near-extinction. This essay provides updated research and information about developments since 2011.In addition to describing the current state of turtle populations in Asia, this research team discusses basic natural history and offers insights on what educators can do to help minimize impacts to Asian turtles.  Through two case studies applicable to a classroom unit, the essay focuses on turtle conservation efforts in Malaysia and India, respectively.

“The ‘Mundane Violence’ of International Water Conflicts”

By Kimberly Thomas

Fall 2017

• Key terms: China, India, Indonesia, Mongolia, Myanmar, Pakistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Vietnam, Inner Asia, South Asia, Southeast Asia, geography, environmental issues, economics, international relations, political science, water issues
• Best for: post-secondary
• Article type: research

Water scarcity is an issue of staggering proportions, impacting approximately 4 billion people. The crisis is compounded by climate change and international politics. This article highlights two problems with the way we typically think about water in the context of international conflicts. First, war over water is extremely improbable but continues to claim an undue amount of our attention. Second, focusing on the perceived threat of water wars at some unspecified point in the future interferes with our ability to recognize and address the ordinary violence involving water that has become “mundane” because it has become normalized.

“Water and the Environment in Asia”

By Jared Hall

Fall 2017

• Key terms: environmental studies, environmental challenges, water issues, global issues,
• Best for: middle school, high school
• Article type: research, instruction

This column offers a “starter pack” of useful online resources for teaching about water issues and the environment in Asia as well as ideas for developing full units and shorter classroom activities.

“Asia’s Turtle Crisis and Conservation: Environmental Education and Cultural Geography”

By Bradley R. Reynolds, Thomas P. Wilson

Fall 2011

• Key terms: Cambodia, China, Laos, Vietnam, Southeast Asia, environmental studies, global issues, geography, cultural studies, contemporary issues, biology, case studies
• Best for: high school, post-secondary
• Article type: research, curriculum, instruction

This article and a follow-up piece, “Turtles All the Way Down” (2021) present a detailed introduction to a case study of an ecological crisis in geographic and cultural context. The two articles provide sufficient background to form the basis of a high-interest classroom research project in science or geography courses. As of the publication of this article in 2011, over half of Asia’s ninety turtle species were endangered or critically endangered. The authors discuss the role of freshwater turtles and their endangerment in the cultural geographies of China and Southeast Asian countries. They explain the critical place of turtles in the ecosystem and their significance as monitors of the overall health of the regional and broader ecosystems. The authors go on to cite the pivotal roles of  specific Asian countries that exacerbate the turtle crisis, motivated by economic and cultural reasons.

“Major Asian Rivers of the Plateau of Tibet: The Basics”

By Stewart Gordon

Winter 2010

• Key terms: Tibet, China, Inner Asia, environmental issues, environmental challenges, geography, global issues
• Best for: high school, post-secondary
• Article type: research, pedagogy, instruction

Author Stewart Gordon argues for teaching and learning about 12 rivers of the Tibetan Plateau as a single unit rather than as individual rivers tied to specific country studies. Through the article, he discusses four advantages to such an approach. First, this approach requires a change of focus away from national boundaries or civilizations (e.g, China or India) to “major catchment, watershed, and flow areas that sprawl across political borders, ecological zones, ethnic regions, and language boundaries.” This approach more clearly demonstrates the interactions and dependencies of the populations drawing on the waters of these rivers. Further, focus on these rivers as a group encourages comparisons of the ways the waters have been used for the development of civilizations. This conceptual approach better allows for an inquiry-based study. One such approach is to consider common sets of problems for managing these rivers—silting, low water, high water that results from monsoonal rains, the watershed, low-river areas divided across different political entities, and the competing demands of irrigation, industry, and cities. Finally, considering these rivers together highlights the magnitude of the environmental threats and consequences of global warming.

“Losing Shangri-La? The Environmental Degradation of Kathmandu”

By Nanda Shrestha

Spring 1998

• Key terms: Nepal, South Asia, environmental studies, environmental challenges, global issues, geography
• Best for: high school, post-secondary
• Article type: research

Published in the late 1990s, this article remains useful in providing a historical snapshot of continuing, and intensifying, environmental issues for Nepal and the region. The article reflects the issues and policies of the time while also capturing social, cultural, and political responses at an earlier stage of this enduring problem. As such, the article can be useful as historical context for a current classroom study. The author introduces the concept of Shangri-la, based on the novel Lost Horizon and discusses how Tibet and then Kathmandu came to be imagined geographies, invented as “Shangri-las” in the Western imagination and for a Western tourist population. He then considers the paradox of Kathmandu as two cities, one experienced by its residents and the other projecting a fantastic ideal for Westerners. Both have collided with the ramifications of modernization—crises in air pollution and waste pollution due to population growth, industrial production, increased commercialization and consumerism, and changing habits, from food consumption to transportation.